Discussing the ancient hebrews and AT LEAST one other ancient culture Essay

Discussing the ancient hebrews and AT LEAST one other ancient culture - Essay Example This paper focuses mainly on the creation stories of the Hebrews, and compares it to the creation stories of the Greeks and Egyptians. The creation stories of these cultures are discussed and analyzed from their different historical contexts. The Hebrew culture is one of the major ancient cultures in the world. The early history of the Hebrews is recounted in the Bible in the form of patriarchal legends about Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These are considered the descendants of the Hebrew people. Nonetheless, the 12 sons of Jacob are considered the ancestors of the 12 tribes of Israel (see Genesis 29:31-30:24 and 35:16-18 and Exodus 1:1-7). The Hebrew Bible, which is the Old Testament comprises different Hebrew texts, which were collected and assembled by major Jewish scholars between the seventh to tenth centuries A.D. These were collected from codices and scrolls. Nonetheless, the old testament comprises two major creation stories of the Hebrew people. This is quite normal, as it is n ot a strange thing for one culture to have different accounts of creation stories. The two creation stories of the Hebrews are entirely different, and these are recounted differently. The creation story of the Hebrews is from Genesis 2:4 to 3:24 of the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament. Different extensive analyses of the style and content of the Bible has led to the conviction that the first creation story in the Bible might have been written about the tenth Century B.C. This was around the time of the reign of King Solomon. During this period, the nation of Israel was strong and stable. On the other hand, the creation story of Genesis 1:1 to Genesis 2:3 was written three to four centuries later and under different circumstances2. The author of the creation story of Genesis 2:4 to 3:24 is known to scholars as "J.† There is no clarity whether the same author wrote all the two creation stories or whether it was two different authors, including J and P. Nonetheless, â€Å"Jâ₠¬  is considered the most primitive or rural author of the creation stories of the Hebrews. In addition, the exact characteristic of â€Å"J† is not well known by the Bible scholars. While some think that J might have been a poet, others consider J to have been a priest. It is also thought that J was probably recording his or her people's oral traditions in written form. Therefore, lack of clarity of the author of the Hebrew creation stories is quite a challenge. Similarly, since Hebrews have two different accounts of creation stories, people might find it challenging or confusion to believe both the creation stories. As the stories of creation of the Ancient Hebrews addressed the creation of human beings and the earth, other Ancient cultures too had creation stories, which addressed the origin of various phenomena, including humans and the earth, among others. First, the â€Å"Pericles' Funeral Oration† written by Thucydides can be considered a form of creation story among the Ancient Greek. Although this does not explain the origin of earth or humans, it qualifies as a creation story, as it explains the rebuilding of Athens after a major war with Persia, which had devastated the country, as well as the people therein, including the effects of a major plaque that killed many Athenians. Nonetheless, this is a historical account, which is however important in explaining how Athens got itself back together after a devastating situation. The

Creation of Israel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Creation of Israel - Essay Example made to Israel’s birth. The shared and self imposed responsibility of these nations had serious political, emotional and cultural implications on a world population still fresh from the horrific effects in the aftermath of WWII. Arab countries maintain that this is stolen Palestinian land and has opposed the objective from its inception, as they do today and probably always will. However, this paper focuses on the western countries, their historical and their continual involvement in the process of Jewish Statehood. For many centuries, those of Jewish heritage have felt a desire to return to what they consider their rightful native soil. â€Å"This was first articulated during the Babylonian exile and became a universal Jewish theme after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 A.D† (Wolffsohn, 1993, p. 5). In the last quarter of the 19th century Jews in Europe were generally treated as second-class citizens particularly in Eastern European countries. They were increasingly being subjected to persistent oppressions such as the series of state organized persecution of Jews in Russia during 1881. These actions caused many Jewish populations to begin plans for their escape back to their ancestral holy lands (Taylor & Francis Group, 1983, p. 468). In the 1880s, European Jews immigrated to Palestine to escape the pogrom, the massacre of Jews in Russia and Poland. In 1896, Theodore Herzl began the Zionist movement incorporating support from Jewish idealists in order to create a homela nd for Jews. He felt that Jews always had been and always would be victimized and could effectively make a collective stand against oppression only by creating their own nation. He stated, â€Å"We shall create in Palestine an outpost against Asia. We shall be the vanguard of the civilized world against barbarism† (Abrahams,

Kant Deontological Theory Essay Example for Free

Kant Deontological Theory Essay The Formula of Humanity- Act so that you use humanity, whether in your own person or that of another, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends- Act in accordance with the maxims of a member giving universal laws for a merely possible kingdom of ends. The moral duty is what we should be doing. Good is defined as doing what is right and avoiding doing wrong. We have a duty to act in such a way that our actions are moral even if it produces unfavourable results. What is good, according to Kant â€Å"Nothing is good but a good will†. (Good intentions). It is good to be creative or to have good fortune with good outcomes the world becomes a better place. Goodwill is having the good intention to perform one’s duty. The consequences of our actions do not make an action good but rather the goodwill. What is having a good will? Kant proposes that when someone acts out of goodwill that is when someone is acting out of duty. According to Kant â€Å"Duty should be done for the sake and duty alone†. How do we know our duty in a certain situation? Duty has nothing to do with a certain situation or what happens all that matters is the decision is good and the outcome is good. Kant suggests act as if our decision applies to all people at all times. It is always in order to tell lies if the outcome is favourable? Kant would disagree with this. When we act purely out of duty we act reasonably in a manner that we fulfil our duties. Having goodwill is to perform one’s duty It is our duty to do our duty even though we might not be rewarded in this life but we will be rewarded in the next life. Deontological Ethics. Kant Deontological theory of ethics it is linked to moral law of ethics, especially that branch dealing with duty, moral obligation, and right action. Origin: 1820–30; Greek deont- that which is binding (stem of deo) (Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), edited by Noah Porter. ) The word deontology comes from the Greek word meaning duty (deon) and science (or study) of (logos). In moral philosophy, deontological ethics Ethical are theories that maintain that the moral rightness or wrongness of an action depends on its intrinsic qualities. (Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), edited by Noah Porter). A Quote from Kant â€Å"Awe and wonder fills the mind†. â€Å"Starry heavens a metaphor (scientific absolutism) above and the moral law within†. Like gravity and science these are laws which are absolute as well as moral laws. We have a choice we can all still identify the moral law: e. g. do not steal. Kantian deontological theory of ethics is an absolutes theory something which is considered wrong i. e. suicide will always be wrong. Kant argues that morality is rooted in reason; he states that the demands of morality are unconditional or categorical and it presupposes freedom, we have a choice and can identify and rationally identify morality. Kant states that morality must be unconditional it has to be categorical. Kant distinguishes between categorical imperatives from hypothetical ones. The categorical imperative is not about desires or goals but rather about personal well-being. Categorical imperatives are absolute and universal. Categorical imperative is necessary truth and cannot be without self-contradiction or irrationality. The Universal Law Act only in accordance with that maxim through that at the same time, will that it become a universal law. One’s actions must be universal. The Universal law is that one should act on the maxim a law which can become a universal law in nature when acceptable and sustainable. We know that lying and stealing is wrong. If everyone did this society would fail. Perfect duties are without exceptions, but we understand that torture and suicide is always wrong. Suicide is always wrong if this was universalized society would fail. We know that making False Promises that cannot be fulfilled, is always wrong if we cannot regard this as a universal law society would fail. Breaking promises when it in my interest he states that this inconsistent and therefore cannot be a moral imperative. Imperfect duties is seeking the perfection of our duties are contradictions to our will. We ought to be seeking to promote the happiness of others. We understand that this is not always possible. He does not exclude pleasure in doing duty, but that pleasure should not be the guide to what one’s duty is. What is duty? Kant says â€Å"Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the Law†: Kant believes that duty should be crowned in the end with happiness. Obedience he says is a maxim that is universally binding as a law to all rational beings. Treat humans as ends to themselves and should respect and never to treat others as a means to an end but only as an end. This means that we should respect others, because every human possesses an intrinsic value. We are to consider whether our actions are moral and acceptable. Kant argues that morals are about following the rules. Kant moral theory can be summarised in two ways Kant argues that we all have a choice that we can all identify the moral law. The Categorical Imperative Kant designed the Categorical imperative as a framework used to make moral law, which states that one must do what one expects other to do in a similar situation. The Categorical Imperative is the central concept in Kant’s ethics and the groundwork to Metaphysics of Morals. It is based to the â€Å"supreme principle of morality† (4:392), from which all our moral duties come from. He believed that moral requirements were based on a standard of rationality and he named this the Categorical Imperative. By using the Universal Imperatives we use our reason (as long as it is not corrupted) to guide us in a path which is morally virtuous. He states that we should act according to the maxim by which you can at the same time will that it becomes a universal law. Kant uses the example of a person who lends money and is unable to repay the loan. He states that this cannot be a universal law people will no longer believe each other and no person will lend money to another. This can be explained in three ways The Universal Law means that one should act on an action which can be sustained. It is important that we should consider if an action is right or wrong. This action will eliminate selfish action towards other human beings. Imperfect Duties Imperfect duties to seek the happiness of other people this cannot completed always. The moral law will most certainly collapse if everyone told lies and were to steal. It is expected of one to perform ones duty in every way. The Kingdom of Ends is in accordance with the maxims of a member giving universal laws for a merely possible kingdom of ends is an ideal society every person must act in such a way that it benefits the greater number of people for the greater good. Every person should act in such a way as if the person through their maxim were universal lawmakers as members in the universal kingdom of ends. One cannot say I will kill myself out of love; this is acceptable and cannot be regarded as a universal law. He argues that humans have an intrinsic worth, and occupy a special place in creation, therefore people are to be treated with respect and dignity because we should understand that we are all rational agents. We possess the freedom to make our own decisions set targets and guide our conduct by reason. He believes that God is the Supreme Being speaking through our conscious. Therefore Gods existence although it remains unproven it is necessary in order for Kant’s ethical theory to be sound. He states that is freedom and immortality. â€Å"God is the law giver to be obeyed† Kant argues that there must be a God and an after-life since it would be intolerable if there were no reward. Kant states that if humans were to disappear from the planet the moral dimension would disappear too. Critique on Kant’s theories: Humans are motivated by pleasure and not only by reason. The question is it possible to act unselfishly, it is necessary to take consequences into consideration. Kant ethics places great emphasises on lying as a form of wrong. He fails to offer an understanding of conflict between different duties, Kant theories does not take into consideration social conditioning and free will. I disagree with Kant that feelings are subjective and selfish and find that he focuses too much on pure practical moral reason he excludes feeling and desires. Kant tries to combine ethics with reason but this seems unrealistic as the concept of reason does not exist in isolation from human beings and their feelings and actions. Ref: Jorge J. Gracia E, Gregory M, Reichberg and Bernard, Schumacher N. The Classics of Western Philosophy, (Blackwell Publishing Ltd). 2004. Ref: Mc Coy A. An Intelligent Person’s Guide to Christian Ethics, Continuum. London , New York Ref: http://www. slideshare. net/t0nywilliams/kant-9170093.

The Propaganda Model And Bias In The Media Media Essay

The Propaganda Model And Bias In The Media Media Essay The propaganda model is essentially a theory that seeks to formulate the pattern of biases expressed by the media and predict what principles and agendas will be prioritized and advanced according to the what news is deemed worthy or unworthy. News worthiness is characterized by several factors including ownership and control, advertising, sourcing, flak and anticommunist ideology, all of which act as filters that news passes through and is eventually diluted by. This paper will present a detailed explanation of the mechanisms of the propaganda model and use the paired case study method to provide a look into how news becomes distorted, as evidenced in past New York Times articles on Venezuela and Kyrgyzstan of whom are foe and friend to the United States government, respectively. Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman define the propaganda model as an analytical framework that attempts to explain the importance of the U.S. media in terms of basic institutional structures and relationships within which they operate.1 The model seeks to portray how and why U.S. mainstream media functions the way it does, functioning on the basis of several key factors at play that predict this behavior. First and foremost, to understand why a propaganda model even exists one must understand that the media is a business driven by profit. Whether it is just to remain competitive or to make a tidy profit, the prospect of financial gain inevitably grows to outweigh the ability or desire to produce quality, unbiased journalism. News firms require financial backing to compete among other news firms, and in order to gain such backing they must capitulate to the will of their ownership. What this means is that news companies cannot afford to make those who finance them look bad, and as result, journalism succumbs to the restrictions imposed by its ownership whether it wants to or not. Combine the regulations of ownership with the views and interests of powerful organizations such as the U.S. government and what you have as a result is a series of filters through which any and all news must pass before it is released to the public. Ownership, acting as a filter in itself, ties into a similar filter which is advertising and funding. Newspapers have to gather and maintain a significant degree of advertising in order to adequately cover production costs without increasing the price of the newspaper. Advertising creates competition among news media to attract advertisers, and as a result, news mediums such as newspapers attempt to get customers to pay attention to their ads more so than the news in order to please the companies who fund the paper. There is no doubt that media becomes distorted by this filter, as the newspaper companies have to please their advertisers in orde r to continue getting their support and finance. Further along the filter path is sourcing, which occurs when media outlets focus their resources on locations where they can count on major news stories to happen. This obviously demonstrates bias on part of the news company, but in a sense it is an unavoidable obstacle as even the largest news corporations could not possibly be everywhere that a news story might occur. Newsworthiness becomes a key player on this stage, in that news companies must carefully pick and choose which stories to investigate and where to be to get the facts they need. Corporate interests take control when journalists chose to obtain their information from these sources and, as a result, journalists typically avoid publishing stories which would damage the reputation of said sources and instead must publish the facts as given to them. When popular opinion comes into doubt or question, corporate interest make great attempts at countering any negative light she d upon them with the use of flak. Flak is basically any form of a targeted negative response to a damaging claim meant to discredit that claim and those who are behind it. Flak machines are often produced by corporations seeking to defend themselves, and media outlets can be targeted by these machines if their news is unfavorable. Media bias is strengthened by flak when news companies, who chose to avoid triggering it, produce stories with intentional distortions and omissions. Another filter powering the propaganda engine comes from the United States deep rooted hatred of all things communist. The U.S. government has a starring role in the manipulation of the media, often using its influence to sway public opinion towards a particular agenda. From this sprouts the concept of worthy and unworthy victims, where the government will chose which stories to publish and in what way such that it can garner the necessary emotion towards a specified cause. This is a critical component to the propaganda model and with it we can see media bias at work, as we investigate news reporting on two countries that are quite similar to one another in their relationship to the U.S. With the help of the propaganda model, we will examine Venezuela, which is a considered a foe to the U.S., and Kyrgyzstan, a friend to the U.S. The paired case study method takes these two countries, which have similar populations, possess important assets for the U.S., and have both endured social unrest against their respective government, and compares news reports from the past few months about each as published by the New York Times. This method makes it possible to observe the fairly strong media bias that goes largely unnoticed. Following the rise to power of President Hugo Chavez, U.S.-Venezuelan relations have dwindled amid rising tensions between the two countries, especially after a U.S. attempt to overthrow Chavez failed resulting in Venezuela cutting off all ties with the U.S. In this light, the U.S. considers Venezuela a foe, and the propaganda model would predict that past news stories would reflect the country in a mostly negative light with minimal coverage regarding victims or sympathy and primary focus on criticizing the countrys president and government. The following page portrays a compilation of news articles that have been written within the past 11 months covering different topics from both Venezuela and Kyrgyzstan. The table shows how the articles produced by the New York Times follow the propaganda model. After examining several articles, this table clearly shows that a strong focus is placed on criticizing the Venezuelan government. The U.S. is attempting to sway public opinion against Venezuela, as most of the articles are targeted towards President Hugo Chavezs rule and how his regime has negatively affected the country. In complete contrast to this trend can be observed in the New York Times reporting of events in Kyrgyzstan, who are considered friend to the U.S. With the many valuable resources offered by Kyrgyzstan, such as air space and fuel, the U.S. is on good terms with the country and provides humanitarian and military assistance to support political, educational, and economic reform. The table shows that a majority of the articles concentrate on support of the country, including several news stories about victims in the country in order to garner sympathy. Almost all of the articles examined shed Huge Chavez in a negative light; two articles discuss the arrest of an opposi tion figure by President Chavez, and several also talk about his control over newspapers and cable television as well as the government mandated black outs that occur daily in Venezuela. The articles written in Kyrgyzstan make a lot of mention to opposition and violence within the country, in an attempt to divert focus from the countrys government and convert them to victims. Examining the articles more in depth one finds several examples of unsupport for Venezuela, such as the case in one article about the critic of Chavez who was arrested, where the NY Times writes The arrest of Mr. Zuloaga comes at a time when Mr. Chavezs government is adopting an increasingly harsh approach to dealing with the presidents critics. This displays a direct criticism of the Chavez government, and in that same article the NY Times further goes on to hurt the image of Venezuela when they say Mr. Alvarez Paz also said that Venezuela had been transformed into a center for drug trafficking in South Americ a. That assertion has also been made repeatedly by the United States government and in independent media investigations.2 In following the propaganda model, the NY Times is highlighting the bad in the country, such as when they make several references to the fact that civil liberties are slowly being eroded in the country, as when they quote A coalition of more than a dozen opposition parties said in a statement that Mr. Alvarez Paz had been arrested for a crime of opinion in an attempt to silence criticism and encourage a climate of self-censorship.3 As the propaganda model would suggest, very little sympathy and support is reflected upon for Venezuela and from the news articles examined, only three make any reference to tragedy or hardship in the country. In one of the few articles regarding victims or sympathy for the country, one article that talks about 9 deaths in a Venezuelan cargo ship fire is only 97 words long, whereas an article discussing a government satire newspaper th at has angered President Chavez and lead to his threatening of tighter Internet controls has 1,157 words. Compare this to the articles written about Kyrgyzstan, where one particular article discussing victims of violence in Bishkek has 1145 words describing the event in strong detail to convey sympathy. A glaring example of worthy and unworthy victims can be seen in a comparison between the two countries in reference to the articles of violence: in the story about the 9 deaths on the Venezuelan cargo ship, the NY Times writes Six of the dead crew members were from the Philippines and three were Greek, the Venezuelan Navy said. One of the injured crew members was reported in delicate condition.5 However, in the article about the violent protests in Kyrgyzstan, the NY Times shows significantly more sympathy and detail when they go as far as to include an account of one victim; Taland Borgulev, a 36-year-old mechanic, had a blood-soaked bandage wrapped around a bullet wound on his thig h. All had joined the crowds in capital for what they thought would be a peaceful protest against a corrupt and authoritarian government only to be cut down in a hail of bullets.5 There is a very apparent distinction in here in the level of detail that the NY Times gives when describing the violent stories from each country. The victims in Venezuela, being considered a foe to the U.S., have become an unworthy, and those in Kyrgyzstan, a friend to the U.S., are worthy victims so they sympathy can be evoked from their tragedy. The propaganda model, while quite accurate, is not always perfect at predicting the trend of news stories about a particular country. One article discusses a rather lengthy news story discussing grave robbing in Venezuela. A lot of attention is also given to Venezuelas budget and energy crisis including several quotes from people who are angry at President Chavez, such as, Were paying for the mistakes of this president and his incompetent managers, said Aixa Lopez, 39, president of the Committee of Blackout Victims, which has organized protests in several cities.6 The propaganda model, accurate as it may be, is not always correct, whereby the model would predict that only minimal coverage would be granted to news involving tragedy, however, over 1000 words are written in this particular article entitled Cemetery Plunder Shows That in Venezuela, Even Death May Not Bring Peace. This is the only article of its kind in the series of Venezuelan news stories examined as shown by the ratio of support to criticism of 1:6.3. Similarly, the propaganda model is not followed in an article entitled Jet Fuel Sales to U.S. Are an Issue in Kyrgyzstan because it discusses Kyrgyzstan accusing the U.S. of allowing family members of the exiled president to obtain significant contracts in supplying jet fuel to a base outside of Bishkek. With the propaganda model in place, it seems quite apparent that the NY Times does in fact pick sides, and object journalism seems to be a near impossibility. Further proof of this media bias comes from back in 2003, where a man named Francisco Toro was hired by the NY Times as an editor even when it was well known that he was a very strong anti-Chavez activist. A news article from that period talks about how that very reporter quit his job as a NY Times editor over conflict of interest, and it was further mentioned that hiring a biased news reporter to cover Venezuelan news was not the first time the company was in violation of their standards of o bjective and disinterested reporting.7 Toro was well known as an opposition activist, and his participation in numerous protests and organizations against Hugo Chavez was not only known by the NY Times prior to his hiring, but they tried to hide this information as well.7 With so much energy spent criticizing the policies and cabinet of President Chavez, several reports are laden with distortions and misconceptions on policies being implemented in the country. Take for example a NY Times editorial from Venezuela which criticizes a statement regarding the nationalization of an electric company and the telephone company CANTV. The NY Times fails to mention that CANTV has a monopoly on telecommunications, as it is the only non-cellular telephone company in the country, and it was privatized during the term of impeached former President Carlos Andres Perez resulting in massive protest and violence.8 The NY Times is quick to condemn the policies of a foe country, and in doing so fail to understand why the country implements such policies, where in the aforementioned example, a nationalized phone company would prevent monopoly and ensure Venezuelans have access to telecommunication services.8 The distortions made by the NY Times very much supports the propaganda model, and with Kyrgyzstan as a friend country, the model would predict little to no distortions or omissions, as news sources generally try to tell few lies if possible. So can we ever hope to have unbiased media? With so much dependence on advertising, the constraints of ownership and the multitude of other filters that clean up our news, it is likely that the answer to that question will remain an indefinite no. How does this reflect upon our society? The beauty of enlightenment is that it is there when we finally realize and chose to accept it, but it seems that we may be unable to grasp onto enlightenment in the media even when we are ready and willing to receive it. This paper has shown that bias in the media simply cannot be avoided; a journalist who wishes to remain purely objective and unbiased will always be chained to his cave no matter how close he gets to the exit. As long as there is bias in the media, we will be continuously subject to an illusion that manufactures false consciousness, with tuning out as our only hope of avoiding it. Sources 1Chomsky, Noam, and Edward Herman. Manufacturing Consent. 2nd. New York: Pantheon Books, 1988. xi. Print 2 Chavez Critic Is Arrested, Then Freed, In Venezuela: [Foreign Desk] Simon Romero.   New York Times.   (Late Edition (east Coast)). New York, N.Y.: Mar 26, 2010.   p. A.4 3 Venezuela: Arrest of Opposition Figure Is Criticized: [Brief] The Associated Press.   New York Times.   (Late Edition (east Coast)). New York, N.Y.: Mar 24, 2010.   p. A.8 4Venezuela: 9 Die In Cargo Ship Fire: [Brief] The Associated Press.  New York Times.   (Late Edition (east Coast)). New York, N.Y.: Dec 26, 2009.   p. A.10 5Kyrgyzstans Deposed President Is Urged to Seek Exile: [Foreign Desk] Michael Schwirtz.   New York Times.   (Late Edition (east Coast)). New York, N.Y.: Apr 10, 2010.   p. A.3 6As Blackouts Hit Energy-Rich Venezuela, the President Tells People to Cut Back: [Foreign Desk] Simon Romero.   New York Times.   (Late Edition (east Coast)). New York, N.Y.: Nov 11, 2009.   p. A.6 7Giordano, Al. NY Times Reporter Quits Over Conflict of Interest. Narco News Bulletin 1.27 (2003): Web. 1 May 2010. 8Golinger, Eva. Confused About Venezuela? NY Latina Journal (2007). Web. 1 May 2010.

Borges Use of Berkeleys Idealism Essays -- Essays Papers

Borge's Use of Berkeley's Idealism Jorge Luis Borges drew upon a number of philosophical and intellectual models in his writing, one of which is George Berkeley’s subjective idealism. In "Tlà ¶n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius," Borges paints a picture of a perfect reality governed by Berkeley’s idea that matter only exists in perception, and in "The Circular Ruins," he presents a man who creates a boy who cannot exist independent of his perception. However, by employing Berkeley’s logic in these stories, Borges is in fact denying Berkeley’s ultimate purpose: the justification of the existence of God. In almost all of his work, Berkeley’s fundamental goal is to logically disprove any thinking that presumes the non-existence of God (Muehlmann 231). In a nutshell, Berkeley argues that matter does not exist outside of human perception. In his Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, he asserts the following: If it be allowed that no idea nor anything like an idea can exist in an unperceiving substance, then surely it follows, that no figure or mode of extension which we can either perceive or imagine, or have any idea of, an be really inherent in matter. (Three Dialogues 139) According to Berkeley, only qualities of matter exist, and only in the perceiving mind. For instance, fire as an object does not exist, but the sensation it produces in the mind does because the mind can perceive it. Outside of the perception of heat, fire does not exist because the mind is not present to acknowledge it (123-128). Berkeley expands this principle further to justify the existence of God, arguing that for ideas to be perceivable, they must be perceived. Thus, anything that cannot be perceived by the mind can only exist in the mind of Go... ...rcular Ruins," or a culmination of several different forces, as in "Tlà ¶n, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius" (59). Subjective idealism is enough to explain the nature of human perception, but is hopelessly theocentric concerning Berkeley’s ultimate purpose. Borges exploits this weakness, and subsequently uses Berkeley’s crowning philosophical achievement to defend agnosticism and reinforce the uncertainty surrounding God. Works Cited Berkeley, George. Principles of Human Knowledge. London: Penguin, 1988. Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous. London: Penguin, 1988. Borges, Jorge Luis. Ficciones. Trans. Emecà © Editores. New York: Grove Press, 1962. Dunham, Lowell and Ivar Ivask. The Cardinal Points of Boges. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971. Muehlmann, Robert G. Berkeley’s Metaphysics. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.

Coral Reefs Need Help Essay -- Environment, Oceans, Fish

Beautiful beaches, a hot sun, glistening sand, and a clear ocean would make the perfect vacation, right? Many of us would enjoy being somewhere tropical. This kind of vacation won’t last much longer if we don’t start taking care of endangered coral reefs now! World government leaders should establish laws to protect them. People may ask, â€Å"If coral reefs are in such danger, why don’t we fix the problem since they provide benefits for the whole world?† Frankly, it’s not that simple. Protecting endangered coral reefs will provide the whole world with long lasting benefits. To figure out how to solve the problem, we must start with the benefits they provide for humans and nonhumans. Coral reefs support 128 corallivorous fish species, one third of which feed almost solely on coral (80%) (Cole 286). These reefs also provide the corallivorous fish species like butterfly fish with shelter and living space (Cole 287). Most of these fish feed on Scleractinian coral (â€Å"hard† coral) while the others feed on â€Å"soft† coral due to regional variation (Cole 288, 292). For the balance of fish and coral reefs to remain in sync, the feeding intensity of the fish and the regeneration of coral reefs need to balance one another (Cole 297). When combined with other stressors like pollution and coral bleaching, it’s hard for the reefs to recover (Cole 299). Since so many people rely on the fish caught around these reefs, limiting stress on them is important. They supply the benefit and necessity of food to many people. In developing countries, c oral reefs contribute to one fourth of the fish caught that feed about one billion people in Asia alone (Moore 1). Fish seem to be plentiful, at least right now. Much of the world’s poor population depends on fis... ...urces like water. Citizens can also help by taking showers instead of baths, buying locally grown foods, carpooling, walking, or bicycling. Citizens need to collaborate and motivate one another when it comes to using less fossil fuel. Fixing this issue will certainly be difficult, but we can adjust our lifestyles in a way that’ll keep the environment safe for coral reefs. Human, nonhuman and coral reef health is likely to improve! Paying to save coral reefs will be more beneficial to the world, and international governments should share the cost to protect the reefs. People who pollute more than regulations allow should be fined with that money going towards the maintenance of coral reefs. Food, life-saving medicine, income from tourism, and coastal protection will all diminish if we don’t start helping today!

Assessment of Ell Students

Running head: Assessment Assessment of English Language Learners Student Name Grand Canyon University: ESL 534 August 8 2012 With the implementation of the No Child Left behind Act of 2001, states are required to assess ELL students to determine if students are making adequate progress towards their language development goals. The purpose of the NCLB act is to challenge students to meet higher standards, close the achievement gap, and ensure that all students have the same opportunities to reach their full potential.There has been much criticism regarding the NCLB act and the high stakes testing that has developed as a result, especially when it comes to ELL students. ELL students not only have to learn required content objectives as other students, but have the challenge of learning the English language simultaneously. Students, schools, and teachers are evaluated with standardized test annually to ensure the initial goals are met.The concern that many have with standardized testing is they do not show the overall progress of the student which may lead to inaccurate results regarding a student’s language proficiency. English Language Learners are a diverse group with different languages, cultures, and backgrounds. Their language acquisition can be effected by many things including socio-economic factors and educational backgrounds. Understanding language acquisition theories can give critical insight into how assessments should be developed.Some of the popular theories of language acquisition include the threshold hypothesis, which states that a student’s language skills need to reach a critical level before students can benefit from bilingualism (Cummins, 1979) and the Critical/ Sensitive period hypothesis which states that students who are not exposed to a second language before puberty will never reach the proficiency of a native English speaker (Bailey & Heritage, 2010). According to Hakuta 2000, it takes several years for ELL students to rea ch the level of proficiency needed to learn new academic content through a second language. This theory and others hould cause educators to question the current objectives that we have for ELL students and the time frame that ELL students have for meeting those objectives. Language proficiency assessments are an important tool used to measure students’ progress as well as record their starting point. Stiggins and Chappuis 2005 argue that students make conclusions about their capability of learning based on the assessments that teachers provide. and that â€Å"feedback delivered once a year from standardized district, state, national, or international is far too infrequent and broadly focused to be helpful (Stiggins& Chappuis, 2005 p. 2). Stiggins and Chappuis believe that our current educational system places far too much emphasis on assessments and that one test does not provide an accurate measure of a schools or students success. Instead, they argue that student involved assessments are more beneficial for the student and teacher and set the student up for success. With student involved assessments student and teachers work as partners to monitor their achievement creating an environment where students feel secure and know what is expected of them and what it takes for them to meet their goals Stiggins& Chappuis, 2005).Within the last ten years there have been numerous debates centered over how or if ELL students should participate in standardized testing. Some have argued that standardized test can be biased against ELL students because they don’t take into account cultural differences in language structure. Standardized test provide only a snap shot of the learning and growth that has taken place for ELL students and is not a way to accurately monitor the progress of students. With standardized testing we shift the attention from learning and building knowledge for the future to focusing on short term results.With unrealistic goals for stan dardized testing it can be difficult to tell the difference between schools that are serving the needs of ELL students and those that are not. References Bailey, A. L. and Heritage M. (2010). English Language Proficiency Assessments Foundations: External Judgments of Adequacy. Evaluating the validity of English language Proficiency Assessments. (An Enhanced Assessment Grant). Retrieved August 2, 2012 from http://www. library. gcu. edu Stiggins, R. and Chappuis, J. Using Student-Involved Classroom Assessment to Close Achievement Gaps Retrieved August 2, 2012 from http://www. library. gcu. edu